**Object:** entity with an implementation (hidden) and an interface (visible), made up of a set of operations and a specification of the behavior.
**Concurrent:** if the object can be accessed by different processes.

**Semaphore:** is a shared counter S accessed via primitives $up$ and $down$ s.t.:
- is initialized at s0 >= 0
- it is alwayz >= 0
- *up* atomically increases S
- *down* atomically decreases S if it is not 0, otherwise the calling process is blocked and waits.

Main use: **prevent busy waiting**: suspend processes that cannot perform *down*.

**Strong semaphore:** if uses a FIFO policy for blocking/unblocking, otherwise it's **weak**.
**Binary semaphore:** if it is at most 1 (also *up* are blocking).

A semaphore needs two underlying objects:
- a counter initialized at s0 that can also become negative (see the implementation below to understand)
- a data structure (typically a queue), initially empty, to store suspended processes.

#### Ideal implementation
```
S.down() :=
	S.counter--
	if S.counter < 0 then
		enter into S.queue
		SUSPEND
	return

S.up() :=
	S.counter++
	if S.counter <= 0 then
		activate a proc from S.queue
	return
```
>[!note] note
>if S.counter ≥ 0, then this is the value of the semaphore; otherwise, S.counter tells you how many processes are suspended in S
>
>all operations are in MUTEX


#### Actual implementation
```
Let t be a test&set register initialized at 0

S.down() :=
	Disable interrupts
	wait S.t.test&set() = 0
	S.counter--
	if S.counter < 0 then
		enter into S.queue
		S.t <- 0
		Enable interrupts
		SUSPEND
	else
		S.t <- 0
		Enable interrupts
	return

S.up() :=
	Disable interrupts
	wait S.t.test&set() = 0
	S.counter++
	if S.counter <= 0 then
		activate a proc from S.queue
	S.t <- 0
	Enable interrupts
	return
```
Same as before but we use test&set to actually ensure MUTEX (of course we could have used any other hardware MUTEX implementation seen so far).

#### (Single) Producer/Consumer
It's a shared FIFO buffer of size k.
- `BUF[0,…,k-1]`: generic registers (not even safe) accessed in MUTEX
- `IN/OUT` : two variables pointing to locations in `BUF` to (circularly) insert/remove items, both initialized at 0
- `FREE/BUSY`: two semaphores that count thew number of free/busy cells of `BUF`, initialized at k and 0 respectively.

```
B.produce(v) :=
	FREE.down() # blocking if FREE becomes negative
	BUF[IN] <- v
	IN <- (IN+1) mod k # mod k since it is circular
	BUSY.up() # "there is something to consume"
	return

B.consume() :=
	BUSY.down() # it blocks if there is nothing to consume
	tmp <- BUF[OUT]
	OUT <- (OUT+1) mod k
	FREE.up()
	return tmp
```

> [!note] Downside
> Reading from / writing into the buffer can be very expensive!

#### (Multiple) Producers/Consumers
**Accessing BUF in MUTEX slows down the implementation**, we would like to have the possibility to read and write from different cells **in parallel**.
- we use two arrays FULL and EMPTY of atomic boolean registers, initialized at ff (all zeros) and tt (all ones), respectively
- we have two extra semaphores SP and SC, both initialized at 1

```
B.produce(v) :=
	FREE.down()
	SP.down()
	while not EMPTY[IN] do
		IN <- (IN+1) mod k
	i <- IN
	EMPTY[IN] <- ff
	SP.up()
	BUF[i] <- v
	FULL[i] <- tt
	BUSY.up()
	return

B.consume() :=
	BUSY.down()
	SC.down()
	while not FULL[OUT] do
		OUT <- (OUT+1) mod k
	o <- OUT
	FULL[OUT] <- ff
	SC.up()
	tmp <- BUF[o]
	EMPTY[o] <- tt
	FREE.up()
	return tmp		
```
Thanks to the semaphores, we are sure that while loops will not go on forever! The loops starts only if there is at least a FREE / BUSY cell.

#### (Multiple) Producers/Consumers - Wrong solution
**EXERCISE** this example is wrong
```
B.produce(v) :=
	FREE.down()
	SP.down()
	i <- IN
	IN <- (IN + 1) mod k
	EMPTY[in] <- ff
	SP.up()
	BUF[i] <- v
	FULL[i] <- tt
	BUSY.up()
	return

B.consume() :=
	BUSY.down()
	SC.down()
	o <- OUT
	OUT <- (OUT+1) mod k
	FULL[OUT] <- ff
	SC.up()
	tmp <- BUF[o]
	EMPTY[o] <- tt
	FREE.up()
	return tmp
```
okay, so the difference seems to be just the fact that there are no while loops to find the first free location, or the first location with data.

Let's imagine to have quick producers and a slow consumer:
producer A:
- writes at BUF[0], so IN becomes 1
- writes at BUF[1], so IN becomes 2
- ...
- writes at BUF[n], so IN becomes 0

**Now there are no free slots.**

consumer A:
- starts reading BUF[0], now OUT is 1
	- it is a sloooooooooow consumer

consumer B:
- finds OUT at 1, sets OUT at 2 and starts reading
- finishes reading (before consumer A)
- sets EMPTY[1] <- tt
- calls `FREE.up()`

producer A:
- as consumer B called `FREE.up()`, the producer can finally produce
- remember, IN is set to 0!
- so producer A will write at `BUF[0]`
- but wait! Consumer B is still reading there
- **Producer A doesn't give a fuck.**
	![200](images/Pasted%20image%2020250312121828.png)`
	*don't be like Producer A, be more like Bob, who always scans EMPTY before!*

So the issue here is that producers just assume that IN is the first available slot. But it its not necessarily the case.
#### The Readers/Writers problem
- Several processes want to access a file
- Readers may simultaneously access the file
- At most one writer at a time
- Reads and writes are mutually exclusive

>[!note] Remark
>this generalizes the MUTEX problem (MUTEX = RW with only writers)

The read/write operations on the file will all have the following shape:
```
conc_read() :=
	begin_read()
	read()
	end_read()

conc_write() :=
	begin_write()
	write()
	end_write()
```

##### Weak priority to Readers
- If a reader arrives during a read, it can surpass possible writers already suspended (risk of starvation for the writes)
- When a writer terminates, it activates the first suspended process, irrispectively of whether it is a reader or a writer (so, the priority to readers is said «weak»)

```
GLOB_MUTEX and R_MUTEX semaphores init. at 1
R a shared register init. at 0

begin_read() :=
	R_MUTEX.down()
	R++ # currently active readers
	if R = 1 then GLOB_MUTEX.down()
	R_MUTEX.up()
	return

end_read() :=
	R_MUTEX.down()
	R--
	if R = 0 then GLOB_MUTEX.up()
	R_MUTEX.up()
	return

begin_write() :=
	GLOB_MUTEX.down()
	return

end_write() :=
	GLOB_MUTEX.up()
	return
```
If readers keeps arriving, they surpass writers. But when a writer terminates it activates the first suspended process, which can be a reader or a writer.
##### Strong priority to Readers
When a writer terminates, it activates the first reader, if there is any, or the first writer, otherwise.

```
GLOB_MUTEX and R_MUTEX and W_MUTEX semaphores init. at 1
R a shared register init. at 0

begin_read() :=      end_read() :=
	come prima           come prima

begin_write() :=
	W_MUTEX.down()
	GLOB_MUTEX.down()
	return

end_write() :=
	GLOB_MUTEX.up()
	W_MUTEX.up()
	return
```
This is prioritizing readers as `GLOB_MUTEX.up()` is called before `W_MUTEX.up()`, this is stronger that what it is done before.
##### Weak priority to Writers
```
GLOB_MUTEX, PRIO_MUTEX (to prioritize the writers), R_MUTEX and W_MUTEX semaphores init. at 1
R and W shared registers init. at 0

begin_read() :=
	PRIO_MUTEX.down()
	R_MUTEX.down()
	R++
	if R = 1 then
		GLOB_MUTEX.down()
	R_MUTEX.up()
	PRIO_MUTEX.up()
	return

end_read() := # like weak priority to readers
	R_MUTEX.down()
	R--
	if R = 0 then
		GLOB_MUTEX.up()
	R_MUTEX.up()
	return

def begin_write() :=
	W_MUTEX.down()
	W++
	if W = 1 then
		PRIO_MUTEX.down()
	W_MUTEX.up()
	GLOB_MUTEX.down()
	return

def end_write() :=
	GLOB_MUTEX.up()
	W_MUTEX.down()
	W--
	if W = 0 then
		PRIO_MUTEX.up()
	W_MUTEX.up()
	return
```
This is prioritizing writers as if there are writers waiting, they will be waiting at `GLOB_MUTEX.down()`. This semaphore is upped before `PRIO_MUTEX` which is the one that blocks readers.
It is weak as a writer cannot block readers twice.