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Autonomous Networking/notes/6 Internet of Things.md

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 IoT term is used to refer to
 - the resulting globlal network of connecting smart objects
-- the protocols ...
+- technologies needed to realize such a vision
-- ...
+- applications and services leveraging such technologies
 
 required features:
 - devices hetereogeneity
@@ -9,6 +9,11 @@ required features:
 - data ubiquitous data exchange
 - energy-optimized solutions
 
+key features:
+- localization and tracking (many applications require position and movement tracking)
+- self-organization capabilities (support ad-hoc networks)
+- semantic interoperability (standard formats for data)
+- embedded security and privacy-preserving mechanism
 
 #### Backscattering
 - allows devices to run without battery
@@ -16,7 +21,7 @@ required features:
 - use radio frequency signals as power source
 - two types
 	- ambient
-	- rfid
+	- RFID
 
 ##### Ambient backscattering
 - devices harvest power from signals available in the environment
@@ -29,13 +34,12 @@ required features:
 		- signal may not be available indoor or not powerful enough
 
 ##### RFID backscattering
-
+- main advantage is the availability of RFID signal. Reader is always present in a RFID
-...
-
 ##### Battery free smart home
 - in a smart home there may be a lot of smart devices
 - if every one of them has a battery, it's not good for the environment
 - we can deploy an RFID reader with multiple antennas that covers all the different rooms
+- of course RFID sensors can have very low capabilities, but they can run sensors!
 
 ### Communication
 add scheme slide

Autonomous Networking/notes/6.1 RL.md

@@ -1,122 +0,0 @@
-Case study: battery-free smart home
-- each device produces a new data sample with a rate that depends on the environment and the user (continuously, event based / on demand...)
-- a device should only transmit when it has new data
-	- but in backscattering-based networks they need to be queried by the receiver
-
-In which order should the reader query tags?
-- assume prefixed timeslots
-- TDMA with random access performs poorly
-- TDMA with fixed assignment also does (wasted queries)
-- we want to query devices that have new data samples and avoid
-	- data loss
-	- redundant queries
-
-Goal: design a mac protocol that adapts to all of this.
-One possibility is to use Reinforcement Learning
-
-#### Reinforcement learning
-How can an intelligent agent learns to make a good sequence of decisions
-
-- an agent can figure out how the world works by trying things and see what happens
-- is what people and animals do
-- we explore a computational approach to learning from interaction
-	- goal-directed learning from interaction
-
-RL is learning what to do, it presents two main characteristics:
-- trial and error search
-- delayed reward
-
-- sensation, action and goal are the 3 main aspects of a reinforcement learning method
-- a learning agents must be able to
-	- sense the state of the environment
-	- take actions that affects the state
-
-Difference from other ML
-- no supervisor
-- feedback may be delayed
-- time matters
-- agent action affects future decisions
-- ...
-- online learning
-
-Learning online
-- learning while interacting with an ever changing world
-- we expect agents to get things wrong, to refine their understanding as they go
-- the world is not static, agents continuously encounter new situations
-
-RL applications:
-- self driving cars
-- engineering
-- healthcare
-- news recommendation
-- ...
-
-Rewards
-- a reward is a scalar feedback signal (a number)
-- reward Rt indicates how well the agent is doing at step t
-- the agent should maximize cumulative reward
-
-RL based on the reward hypotesis
-all goals can be described by the maximization of expected cumulative rewards
-
-communication in battery free environments
-- positive rewards if the queried device has new data
-- else negative
-
-Challenge:
-- tradeoff between exploration and exploitation
-- to obtain a lot of reward a RL agent must prefer action that it tried and ...
-- ...
-
-exploration vs exploitation dilemma:
-- comes from incomplete information: we need to gather enough information to make best overall decisions while keeping the risk under control
-- exploitation: we take advanced of the best option we know
-- exploration: test new decisions
-
-### A general RL framework
-at each timestamp the agent
-- executes action
-- receives observation
-- receives scalar reward
-
-the environment
-...
-
-agent state: the view of the agent on the environment state, is a function of history
-- the function of the history is involved in taking the next decision
-- the state representation defines what happens next
-- ...
-
-#### Inside the agent
-one or more of these components
-- **Policy:** agent's behavior function
-	- defines what to do (behavior at a given time)
-	- maps state to action
-	- core of the RL agent
-	- the policy is altered based on the reward
-	- may be
-		- deterministic: single function of the state
-		- stochastic: specifying probabilities for each actions
-			- reward changes probabilities
-- **Value function:**
-	- specifies what's good in the long run
-	- is a prediction of future reward
-	- used to evaluate the goodness/badness of states
-	- values are prediction of rewards
-	- Vp(s) = Ep[yRt+1 + y^2Rt+2 ... | St = s]
-- **Model:**
-	- predicts what the environment will do next
-	- many problems are model free
-
-back to the original problem:
-- n devices
-- each devices produces new data with rate_i
-- in which order should the reader query tags?
-- formulate as an RL problem
-	- agent is the reder
-	- one action per device (query)
-	- rewards:
-		- positive when querying a device with new data
-		- negative if it has no data
-		- what to do if the device has lost data?
-	- state?

Autonomous Networking/notes/7 RL.md

@@ -0,0 +1,225 @@
+Case study: battery-free smart home
+- each device produces a new data sample with a rate that depends on the environment and the user (continuously, event based / on demand...)
+- a device should only transmit when it has new data
+	- but in backscattering-based networks they need to be queried by the receiver
+
+In which order should the reader query tags?
+- assume prefixed time slots
+- TDMA with random access performs poorly
+- TDMA with fixed assignment also does (wasted queries)
+- we want to query devices that have new data samples and avoid
+	- data loss
+	- redundant queries
+
+Goal: design a mac protocol that adapts to all of this.
+One possibility is to use Reinforcement Learning
+
+#### Reinforcement learning
+How can an intelligent agent learns to make a good sequence of decisions
+
+- an agent can figure out how the world works by trying things and see what happens
+- is what people and animals do
+- we explore a computational approach to learning from interaction
+	- goal-directed learning from interaction
+
+RL is learning what to do, it presents two main characteristics:
+- trial and error search
+- delayed reward
+
+- sensation, action and goal are the 3 main aspects of a reinforcement learning method
+- a learning agents must be able to
+	- sense the state of the environment
+	- take actions that affects the state
+
+Difference from other ML
+- no supervisor
+- feedback may be delayed
+- time matters
+- agent action affects future decisions
+- a sequence of successful decisions will result in the process being reinforced
+- RL learns online
+
+Learning online
+- learning while interacting with an ever changing world
+- we expect agents to get things wrong, to refine their understanding as they go
+- the world is not static, agents continuously encounter new situations
+
+RL applications:
+- self driving cars
+- engineering
+- healthcare
+- news recommendation
+- ...
+
+Rewards
+- a reward is a scalar feedback signal (a number)
+- reward Rt indicates how well the agent is doing at step t
+- the agent should maximize cumulative reward
+
+RL based on the reward hypotesis
+all goals can be described by the maximization of expected cumulative rewards
+
+communication in battery free environments
+- positive rewards if the queried device has new data
+- else negative
+
+Challenge:
+- tradeoff between exploration and exploitation
+- to obtain a lot of reward a RL agent must prefer action that it tried in the past
+- but better actions may exist... So the agent has to exploit!
+
+exploration vs exploitation dilemma:
+- comes from incomplete information: we need to gather enough information to make best overall decisions while keeping the risk under control
+- exploitation: we take advanced of the best option we know
+- exploration: test new decisions
+
+### A general RL framework
+**at each timestamp the agent:**
+- executes action At
+- receives observation Ot
+- receives scalar reward Rt
+
+**the environment:**
+- receives action At
+- emits observation Ot
+- emits scalar reward Rt
+
+
+
+**agent state:** the view of the agent on the environment state, is a function of history
+- the function of the history is involved in taking the next decision
+- the state representation defines what happens next
+- ...
+
+#### Inside the agent
+one or more of these components
+- **Policy:** agent's behavior function
+	- defines what to do (behavior at a given time)
+	- maps state to action
+	- core of the RL agent
+	- the policy is altered based on the reward
+	- may be
+		- deterministic: single function of the state
+		- stochastic: specifying probabilities for each actions
+			- reward changes probabilities
+- **Value function:**
+	- specifies what's good in the long run
+	- is a prediction of future reward
+	- used to evaluate the goodness/badness of states
+	- values are prediction of rewards
+	- Vp(s) = Ep[yRt+1 + y^2Rt+2 ... | St = s]
+- **Model:**
+	- predicts what the environment will do next
+	- many problems are model free
+
+back to the original problem:
+- n devices
+- each devices produces new data with rate_i
+- in which order should the reader query tags?
+- formulate as an RL problem
+	- agent is the reder
+	- one action per device (query)
+	- rewards:
+		- positive when querying a device with new data
+		- negative if it has no data
+		- what to do if the device has lost data?
+	- state?
+
+
+### Exploration vs exploitation trade-off
+- Rewards evaluate actions taken
+- evaluative feedback depends on the action taken
+- no active exploration
+
+Let's consider a simplified version of an RL problem: K-armed bandit problem.
+- K different options
+- every time need to chose one
+- maximize expected total reward over some time period
+- analogy with slot machines
+	- the levers are the actions
+	- which level gives the highest reward?
+- Formalization
+	- set of actions A (or "arms")
+	- reward function R that follows an unknown probability distributions
+	- only one state
+	- ...
+
+Example: doctor treatment
+- doctor has 3 treatments (actions), each of them has a reward.
+- for the doctor to decide which action to take is best, we must define the value of taking each action
+- we call these values the action values (or action value function)
+- action value: ... 
+
+Each action has a reward defined by a probability distribution.
+- the red treatment has a bernoulli probability
+- the yellow treatment binomial
+- the blue uniform
+- the agent does not know the distributions!
+- the estimated action for action a is the sum of rewards observed divided by the total time the action has been taken (add formula ...)
+	- 1predicate denotes the random variable (1 if true else 0)
+
+- greedy action:
+	- doctors assign the treatment they currently think is the best
+	- ...
+	- the greedy action is computed as the argmax of Q values
+	- greedy always exploits current knowledge
+- epsilon-greedy:
+	- with a probability epsilon sometimes we explore
+		- 1-eps probability: we chose best greedy action
+		- eps probability: we chose random action
+
+exercises ...
+
+exercise 2: k-armed bandit problem.
+K = 4 actions, denoted 1,2,3 and 4
+eps-greedy selection
+initial Q estimantes = 0 for all a.
+
+Initial sequenze of actions and rewards is:
+A1 = 1   R1 = 1
+A2 = 2  R2 = 2
+A3 = 2  R3 = 2
+A4 = 2  R4 = 2
+A5 = 3  R5 = 0
+
+---
+step A1: action 1 selected. Q of action 1 is 1
+step A2: action 2 selected. Q(1) = 1, Q(2) = 1
+step A3: action 2 selected. Q(1) = 2, Q(2) = 1.5
+step A4: action 2. Q(1) = 1, Q(2) = 1.6
+step A5: action 3. Q(1) = 1, Q(2) = 1.6, Q(3) = 0
+
+For sure A2 and A5 are epsilon cases, system didn't chose the one with highest Q value.
+A3 and A4 can be both greedy and epsilon case.
+
+#### Incremental formula to estimate action-value
+- to simplify notation we concentrate on a single action
+- Ri denotes the reward received after the i(th) selection of this action. Qn denotes the estimate of its action value after it has been selected n-1 times (add Qn formula ...)
+- given Qn and the reward Rn, the new average of rewards can be computed by (add formula with simplifications...) $Q_(n+1) = Q_{n} + \frac{1}{n}[Rn - Qn]$
+	- NewEstimate <- OldEstimate + StepSize (Target - OldEstimate)
+	- Target - OldEstimate is the error
+
+Pseudocode for bandit algorithm:
+```
+Initialize for a = 1 to k:
+	Q(a) = 0
+	N(a) = 0
+Loop forever:
+	with probability 1-eps:
+		A = argmax_a(Q(a))
+	else:
+		A = random action
+	R = bandit(A) # returns the reward of the action A
+	N(A) = N(A) + 1
+	Q(A) = Q(A) + 1\N(A) * (R - Q(A))
+```
+
+Nonstationary problem: rewards probabilities change over time.
+- in the doctor example, a treatment may not be good in all conditions
+- the agent (doctor) is unaware of the changes, he would like to adapt to it
+
+An option is to use a fixed step size. We remove the 1/n factor and add an $\alpha$ constant factor between 0 and 1.
+And we get $Q_{n+1} = (1-\alpha)^{n}Q_1 + \sum_{i=1}^{n}{\alpha(1 - \alpha)^{(n-1)} R_i}$
+
+
+... ADD MISSING PART ...

Biometric Systems/notes/4. Face recognition.md

@@ -19,3 +19,130 @@ Steps:
 
 ##### Ci si può nascondere?
 Secondo Adam Harvey, il punto chiave che i computer rilevano è il "nose bridge", o l'area tra gli occhi. Se si nascondono si può far credere al computer che non ci sia una faccia.
+
+Approcci di diversa natura:
+- **Basati su feature:** si individuano le feature principali di una faccia (ad esempio posizione occhi, posizione naso, etc..) e poi si possono verificare diverse proprietà di queste (es.: colore della pelle corretto o distanza tra naso e occhi entro una certa soglia)
+- **Basati su immagine:** solitamente vengono utilizzati dei modelli di machine learning che imparano da immagini esemplificative.
+
+> [!PDF|yellow] [[LEZIONE5_NEW_More about face localization.pdf#page=4&selection=56,0,61,0&color=yellow|LEZIONE5_NEW_More about face localization, p.4]]
+> > pixels with the top 5 percent
+> 
+> white compensation using Luma
+
+RGB is not a preceptually uniform space
+- colors close to each other in RGB space may not be perceived as similar
+
+RGB to YCrCb
+![[Pasted image 20241023133231.png]]
+Darker region may have dominant blue component, light region red.
+
+Algoritmo A:
+- variance-based segmentation
+	- the simplest method is thresholding
+		- we have an image I with L gray levels
+		- $n_i$ is the number of pixels with gray level $i$
+		- $p_i = \frac{n_i}{MxN}$ is the probability of gray level i
+		- we divide pixel in two classes C0 and C1 by a gray level t
+		- for each class we can compute mean and variance of gray level![[Pasted image 20241023135127.png]]
+- connected components
+	- skin tone pixels are segmented using local color variance![[Pasted image 20241023135925.png]]
+	
+Eye localization
+The algorithm builds two different eye maps (chroma and luma)
+	- **Chrominance map:** its creation relies on the observation that the region around eyes is characterized by high values of Cb and low values of Cr: $EyeMapC = \frac{1}{3}[(C_B^2)+(C_R^2)+(\frac{C_b}{C_r})]$
+	- **Luminance map:** eyes usually contain both light and dark zones that can be highlighted by morphological operators (dilation and erosion with hemispheric structuring elements)![[Pasted image 20241023140250.png]]
+
+Chroma map is enhanced by histogram equalization
+The two maps are combined through AND operator
+The resulting map undergoes dilation, masking and normalization to discard the other face regions and brighten eyes
+Further operations allow to refine this map.
+
+**Dilation**
+The dilation operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be dilated. The second is a (usually small) set of coordinate points known as a structuring element (also known as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the dilation on the input image.
+
+**Erosion**
+The erosion operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be eroded. The second is a (usually small) set of coordinate points known as a structuring element (also known as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the erosion on the input image.
+
+![[Pasted image 20241023141948.png]]
+
+The algorithm analyzes all the triangles composed by two candidate eyes and a candidate mouth. Each triangle is verified by checking:
+- Luma variations and average of the orientation gradient of the blobs containing eyes and mouth
+- Geometry and orientation of the triangle
+- Presence of a face contour around the triangle
+
+#### Algoritmo B
+Viola Jones rappresenta una vera e propria innovazione per quanta riguarda la localizzazione di una faccia all'interno di un’immagine. Essendo l’algoritmo basato su machine learning, il training di questo è avvenuto utilizzando un dataset personalizzato nel quale vengono etichettate immagini come positive nel caso in cui ci sia una faccia e come negative nel caso in cui non ve ne sia alcuna.
+
+L'agoritmo image based usa un classifier inizialmente trainato con varie istanze delle classi da identificare (esempi positivi) e classi di immagini che non contengono nessun oggetto della classe (esempi negativi).
+
+L'obiettivo del training è estrarre features dagli esempi e selezionare quelle più discriminative. Il modello costruito in modo incrementale e contiene le features.
+
+L'algoritmo fa uso di:
+-  **Ada-Boosting** per la selezione di feature: vengono creati diversi weak classifier, uno per feature, e tramite adaptive boosting riusciamo a creare uno strong classifier composto da un subset di weak-classifier.![[Pasted image 20241023144725.png]]
+
+ AdaBoost è una tecnica di addestramento che ha lo scopo di apprendere la sequenza ottimale di classificatori deboli e i corrispondenti pesi.
+ Richiede un insieme di pattern di training {(x1,y1),(x2,y2),...,(xN,yN)}, dove yi ∈{-1,+1} è l’etichetta della classe associata al pattern. Inoltre durante l’apprendimento è calcolata e aggiornata una distribuzione di pesi [w1,w2,...,wN] associati ai pattern di training, wi è associato al pattern (xi ,yi).
+Dopo l’iterazione m, è assegnato ai pattern più difficili da classificare un peso w1(m) superiore, cosicché alla successiva iterazione m+1 tali pattern riceveranno un’attenzione maggiore.
+
+un weak classifier è spesso un classifier lineare. Può essere comparato a una linea dritta.
+![[Pasted image 20241024090856.png]]
+in questo caso non va bene perché non tutti i rossi stanno dallo stesso lato. Nell'esempio è impossibile separare le due classi usando linee dritte.
+p.s. non è un classifier a caso, è quello che in questo round ha il numero di errori minore.
+
+![[Pasted image 20241024091151.png]]
+Per trovare una classificazione che separa i sample problematici, incrementiamo i pesi.
+![[Pasted image 20241024091235.png]]
+questo classificatore separa correttamente i sample problematici
+![[Pasted image 20241024091433.png]]![[Pasted image 20241024091446.png]]
+![[Pasted image 20241024091511.png]]
+
+##### Classifying faces with AdaBoost
+Estraiamo feature rettangolari dalle immagini: le Haar features.
+![[Pasted image 20241024092146.png]]
+
+Quello che fa è calcolare: somma dell'intensità dei pixel che si trovano nell'area bianca) - somma dell'intensità dei pixel nell'area nera. Se il risultato dell’operazione è un numero grande allora vuol dire che con alta probabilità in quella porzione di immagine è presente la features identificata dal filtro (il filtro è uno dei quadrati sopra), dove ad esempio nel caso del B (nell'immagine sopra) sono angoli.
+
+Per un immagine 24x24px, il numero di possibili rettangoli di features è 160'000!
+Come si calcolano le Haar features? Possiamo usare AdaBoost per scegliere quali usare.
+
+![[Pasted image 20241024092903.png]]
+esempio molto stupido
+
+![[Pasted image 20241024093000.png]]
+esempio un po' meno stupido
+
+Per ogni round di adaboost:
+- proviamo ogni filtro rettangolare su ogni esempio
+- scegliamo la threshold migliore per ogni filtro
+- scegliamo la miglior combo filtro/threshold
+- ricalcoliamo i pesi
+Complessità computazionale: O(MNT)
+- M filters
+- N examples
+- T thresholds
+
+Le rectangular features possono essere valutate attraverso immagini integral il quale nome viene dato, in ambito computer vision, ad un algoritmo con annessa struttura dati chiamata Summed-Area table, la quale ci consente di calcolare l’area di una sottomatrice in tempo costante.
+L'immagine integrale in posizione (x,y) è la somma del valore dei pixel sopra e a sinistra di (x,y):
+$$II(x,y)=\sum_{x'<=x,y'<=y}I(x',y')$$
+Usando integral image è possibile calcolare la somma dei valori dei pixel in ogni rettangolo:
+![[Pasted image 20241024094223.png]]
+
+Il singolo weak classifier dipende dai parametri $z_k$ (feature) e $t_k$ (threshold):
+- per ogni feature scegliamo un valore di threshold che minimizza l'errore di classificazione
+- si sceglie poi la feature con meno errore
+
+Un solo classificatore robusto, per quanto elimini una grande porzione di sottofinestre che non contengono facce, non soddisfa i requisiti di applicazioni. Una possibile soluzione consiste nell'impiego di classificatori in cascata (cascade classifier), via via più complessi:
+![[Pasted image 20241024095704.png]]
+
+un classificatore per 1 sola feature riesce a passare al secondo stadio la quasi totalità dei volti esistenti (circa 100%) mentre scarta al contempo il 50% dei falsi volti.
+Un classificatore per 5 feature raggiunge quasi il 100% di detection rate e il 40% di false positive rate (20% cumulativo) usando i dati dello stadio precedente.
+Un classificatore per 20 feature raggiunge quasi il 100% di detection rate con 10% di false positive rate (2% cumulativo).
+
+La localizzazione dei volti avviene analizzando sottofinestre consecutive (sovrapposte)
+dell’immagine in input e valutando per ciascuna se appartiene alla classe dei volti:
+![[Pasted image 20241024100002.png]]
+
+#### Valutazione della localizzazione
+- **Falsi positivi:** percentuale di finestre classificate come volto che in realtà non lo contengono
+- **Facce non localizzate:** percentuale di volti che non sono stati individuati
+- **C-ERROR** o Errore di localizzazione: distanza euclidea tra il reale centro della faccia e quello ipotizzato dal sistema, normalizzato rispetto alla somma degli assi dell’ellisse contenente il volto.